Historical Development of Health Care Ethics Methods

Introduction Medical ethics is an area that has aroused enthusiasm and controversy in terms of investigation and finding a position in society. In raising and sustaining interest, medical ethics continue to draw more considerable attention in terms of research and inquiry. On the other hand, controversy has been ignited to a standstill in classifying medical ethics as either a field or a discipline.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Historical Development of Health Care Ethics Methods specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Nevertheless, according to definitions that have been provided to discipline and field, together with what methods constitute, Sugarman and Sulmasy opine that medical ethics should be perceived as a field that embraces inquiry and integrates many subjects rather than viewing it as a discipline on its own.1 In the midst of all this, common sense still drive among scholars in this field due to t heir uniform consensus that medical ethics as a body of knowledge cannot function on its own instead it functions appropriately depending on other areas. The position taken by the authors point out to one thing, medical ethicists share ordinary subject matter but the diverse disciplinary mode of investigation of the subject. Therefore, to medical ethicists, the shared common theme is the normative aspect of health care and the way they approach this is through the integration of wide varieties of disciplines2. Consequently, the various disciplines in their nature employ a wide variety of methods, whereby some of the ways are shared by different disciplines while others are unique to a particular subject. 3 Notably, medical ethics has been explained as a field that embraces different disciplines and methods hence the rise of diverse sub-areas of interests and specialization. For instance, there are medical ethicists with backgrounds in philosophy, theology, healthcare, history, and t o mention but a few. Consequently, the majority of medical ethics have specialized in critical areas of education, consulting, policy analysis and writing, and expert witness. Further, just like any other field, medical ethicists are not experts all-round, and specialization characterizes medical ethicists.Advertising Looking for research paper on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Indeed, today it is conventional to find specialists in research ethics, ethical issues in genetics, public health ethics, ethical issues at the end of life, and many more depending on academic, training, and professional background.4 Understanding bioethics and its contribution to a broader body of knowledge of medicine require an adequate account of the field history since its inception to its current position. It is in this respect that this research paper aims at providing the historical development of healthcare ethics methods wi th the aim to understand how normative practices in healthcare ethics have developed over time. Bioethics in the early stages Traditional period The development of bioethics is perceived to be heavily implicated by multiple factors and occurrences in the history of humanity and progress in medicine and biology. Before the period of 1945, development in medicine was appreciated and encouraged as solutions to humankind problems became inevitable. However, it is also during this period that laxity in moral probity was pronounced.5 What majority of practitioners thought was necessary was the recitation of the Hippocratic Oath upon graduating as medical practitioners6. As a result, the period before 1945 was primarily characterized by little consideration of medical ethics, and many of practitioners were probably guided by informal and self-convictions of moral beliefs and character. Many people viewed the practitioners to be, â€Å"jealous, quarrelsome, and delighted in annoying and ri diculing each other†.7 In general, medical practitioners had established mistrust among the people, and the overall actions of the practitioners were viewed to be aimed at killing and not saving lives. All was not lost, as this was the period when it could be said the birth of medical ethics was inevitable, and expectations were high. This was the period when patterns of medical ethics became a constant novelty in the field of medicine. The work of Richard Cabot (1869-1939) became the driving force in initiating medical ethics during this period. Cabot noted that medical practitioners need some forms of medical ethics to carry out their duties more effectively. All together, Cabot observed that medical practitioners required a thorough understanding of aspects of diseases including: causes, signs, symptoms, courses, prognoses, treatments, as it pertains to individual patients.8Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Historical Development of Health Car e Ethics Methods specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More From the above expression, Cabot observed that the new roles and duties of doctors were to be premised within lenses of moral and ethical performance of a task. This led the author to propose numerous measures that practitioners were to abide to establish and seek extensive cooperation between physicians and all subsequent professionals that have an interest in the care management of the patient. Further, the need for accurate records of patient care which was to be effectively kept and analyzed. Next, the number of patients each doctor was supposed to treat was to be undertaken in a way that does not compromise attention to other patients. Also, practitioners were required to inform their patients about their diagnosis, and their treatment explained to them more appropriately. Moreover, practitioners were to uphold  the utmost respects for their patients and not be used for teaching purposes without their consent. Besides, senior practitioners were required to ensure they respect their juniors and  the harmonious relationship established between them. Lastly, disputes among the profession were to be handled by established committees. Development of medical ethics in the 1950s 1945 to around 1950 acted as a period of transition from the traditional period. During this period, a lot of observation had been made, and some of the practitioners developed a passion for sanctifying the negative perception that had developed and persisted in the field. One such figure that became prominent during this period was known as Ceriani.9 In the company of other practitioners, the doctor embarked on activities and strategies that eventually saw some organization in the field of medicine. For instances, the combined efforts of the practitioners resulted into improvement in medical education, an organization in the field especially with the adoption of code of ethics, regulat ion of the licensure in the area, stigmatization of immoral acts in the field and improvement of the overall administration of medicine. Efforts during this period were directed at reclaiming the moral image of medicine as a field. Subsequently, there was the establishment of the Code of Ethics by the American Medical Association. The code became essential and beneficial to the field, especially in informing medical practitioners about their primary duty to the patients. According to expressions in the system, the practitioners were to refrain from unorthodox, uneducated and unethical practices that could harm their patients.10Advertising Looking for research paper on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Growth of medical ethics in the 1960s Momentum in medical ethics was evidenced in the early 1960s, especially after the revision that was done on the Code of Ethics in 1966. Upon this ratification in 1966, medical ethics were reduced from an earlier number of ten to seven, and the expression of these principles was in clear terms. On overall, the established principles required physicians to uphold utmost respect for the rights of the patients they were attending, to improve on their professional skills, to operate with the disciplinary limits of the profession willingly, to ensure thorough consultation where necessary, to keep confidences and to always work as good citizens.11 Together, the principles outlined limitations on the extent physicians could restrict or allow independent medical judgment or on how to obtain professional income other than the outlined remuneration for services. Consequently, it became clear that ethics performed the role that ensured professional cohesion and respectability. Contribution of religion to the growth of bioethics Ethics within the understanding of religion The position of theologists is that theology is composed of specific norms that can be applied comprehensively to any new or complicated situation in the environment.12 As such, theology promotes understanding that the presence of beliefs about creation, responsibility, sin, and salvation are adopted to ensure that individuals act within the specified moral limits and a clear direction of progress is established.13 Thus, a religious position can be interpreted to postulate that there are a universal human nature and an acceptable unified ideal of the good society. To reinforce this, medical ethicists in the Catholic community observe that people have a common environment and an acceptable allied model of good society.14 As a result of having shared experiences and common fundamental values, a common ground always emerges of what to permit, prohibit, or limit about sci ence, innovation, and genetic engineering. In their overall applications, it is expressed that the ethical methods of theology cannot be perceived to be either separated or insulated from one another or even detached from the realities and dilemmas of particular historical contexts. Theologists’ contribution to the development of bioethics During the early 1960s, the majority of theologists commanded significant influence in outlining the basic ethics in the medical field. For instance, theologists, in this period, became pivotal in defining questions that guided the emerging field. It is anticipated and almost accepted the conclusion that the desire of theologists together with that of philosophers was largely ignited by the emergence of new biomedical technologies.15 Bioethics exhibit great appreciative work from critical protestant theologians such as Joseph Fletcher, Paul Ramsey, and James Gustafson, who is contributing to the emerging field, incorporated ideas of self-sa crificial love, covenant, creation and image of God16. The understanding was that incorporation of these aspects in the field of medicine was paramount in ensuring the moral ability of area.17 Another group was that of Catholic theologians’ who included Richard McCormick, Charles Curran, and Germain Grisez who brought immense benefit to the emerging field by introducing the traditions of authoritative teaching and moral law18. Subsequently, theologians such as Ramsey, Gustafson, McCormick, and Lebacqz who served in essential policy bodies in 1970, 1975, 1981 and 1983 respectively19 took a more active role in designing policy framework for bioethics while at the same time working to enrich the field. Examples of the vital bodies the theologians served under include National Commission on the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research (1974); and the President’s Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical Behavioral Res earch in 197920. By being part of these bodies, the theologians became key pillars in providing resourceful help in the creation of bioethics institutes. For instance, the early publication and edition of the Encyclopedia of Bioethics were immensely designed and enriched by theologians. The success of theologians in their various capacities in these initial stages of bioethics development can be associated to the presence of long-standing traditions of reflection on life, death, and suffering which had provided a fertile ground for the establishment of moral conduct norms and moral philosophy at the moment of development.21 Development of bioethics in institutions Role of conferences Before institutions and centers became the major fortified avenues in which bioethics methods were cemented and developed, meetings played significant roles. The discussions became critical in the 1960s when considerable changes in terms of innovations and development were being realized in medicine. Th is was a turmoil period in medicine as social and ethical problems emerged from the increasing medical and scientific progress.22 In the majority of these conferences held in major cities of the USA, medical scientists gathered to discuss the significant issues that were affecting the medical field as science and technology became inevitable. Themes of the conferences leaned significantly to the morality of medicine and the area as large where the idea was to explore how well drug could perform in larger society even as social and ethical problems became a setback. According to S. Marsh, one of the conferences key personalities, medicine in the growing science and technological world was becoming remote and indifferent to human values.23 As a result, there was a need for the field of medicine to remind itself of the fact that it is a human factor that should override everything else in medicine administration. Due to this, Tenney, observed that the primary aim of the conferences dur ing the time was to, â€Å"examine the issues of conscience in medical and scientific progress, not simply the question of the survival or the extinction of man, but what kind of survival and a future of what nature?†24 This led to a cornucopia of time during the conferences being dedicated to discussing genetics and brain sciences and mainly to discuss and debate ethical considerations that could guide the identified issues. Institutions and centers where bioethics developed The end of the 1960s and start of a new decade of 1970s witnessed the shift of debates and discussions of medical ethics from the conferences to development and enrichment of medical ethics in interpretive centers. The observation that was made for this was that there was a paramount need to move from conferences and its procedures to a more disciplined, careful, long-range way of operation in which concrete solutions to emerging ethical problems could be found.25 Institutions were preferred as the best avenues given their relative possession of critical resources that could be used in establishing concrete bioethics methods. The foundation of the centers was largely ingrained in tremendous work of conferences where materials from meetings became tools of developing framework of research, which now had to be carried out in permanent centers. As a result, three key centers which became avenues for the development and growth of bioethics discourse were created. These centers included the Institute of Society, Ethics and the Life Sciences (The Hastings Center); the Kennedy Institute of Ethics at Georgetown University; and the Society for Health and Human Values26. The Hastings Center became operational in the mid-1960s, pioneered by Dan Callahan and William Gaylin. The need to do intensive research on abortion is what drove Dan Callahan into developing the desire to initiate the center. Observation made by Dan was that the list of controversial moral questions that were appearing in t he biomedical world was becoming more abundant and given that conferences and media had become prominent, the issue was that there was the absence of provision for concentrated interdisciplinary study.27 Therefore, the effect of abortion and its related aspects could not be explored adequately outside an established center of a distinguished body of literature and concrete frameworks. After the initial processes of equipping the center with adequate human resource and infrastructure, four areas emerged in which the center became prominent in terms of research: death and dying, behavior control, genetic engineering and counseling, and population control. Activities of the center became famous mainly through the organizing of symposium and conferences. As a result, the center is credited for inviting and having one of the largest pools of scientists and non-scientists who came together for topical discussions and debates which propelled bioethics into the intellectual map.28 The Kenne dy Institute’s pioneer was Andre E. Hallegers, a research scientist in the area of fetal physiology. As a research scientist, Andre became prominent in organizing conferences on abortion, especially in 1967, which he did in collaboration with Kennedy Foundation. After the conference, the scientist developed an urge that occasional meetings could not address the emerging issues in reproductive sciences and what was needed was a center that could turn to be a scholarly unit for these issues. As the center developed into a full academic organization, it was clear that it became an avenue where bioethics studies became more pronounced and an avenue where organization and assembling of scientists and moral ethicists shared platform and knowledge that became critical and resourceful in development of bioethics. More so, the center is credited with fostering professorships, fellowships, and courses by creating the tools for research specifically in the Bibliography of Bioethics and the Encyclopedia of Bioethics.29 Another center was the Society for Health and Human Values, which was appreciated for its role in the development of the field of bioethics. The center was a matured idea following discussion between United Ministries in Education and Methodist and Presbyterian Churches. Primary aims for the establishment of the center rose from the identified concern to do with ‘depersonalization of medical students and the tendency to teach mechanistic medicine30. As a way of providing the necessary contribution in the medical field, the society became critical in identifying the related problems, forming groups that could develop methods to clarify and assist in solving the issues and subsequently developing a change in professional attitude and public awareness. Following this, the society became deep-seated in identifying and solving ethical issues in health care and advocating for medical humanities. This way, the community did participate significantly i n the creation and development of bioethics methods. Conclusion In this short account on the development of healthcare ethics, it has become clear that the field of bioethics possesses multiple origins in interdependent areas. Nevertheless, the majority of early contributors and field development were drawn from theology institutions, and their overall role to the ground is enormous. However, it has to be remembered that as time has elapsed, the field of bioethics has continued to grow and expand, especially as dynamism engulfs the entire field of medicine and society. Development of science and technology has guaranteed the continued growth of the field of bioethics, which is likely to continue. Although the field in concerted efforts to establish its unique methods, it should not be forgotten that much will still come from other areas, a situation that will see bioethics continue to depend on other disciplines. Endnotes 1 Jeremy Sugarman and Daniel P. Sulmasy, Methods in Medical E thics (WA: Georgetown University Press, 2010) p.5. 2 Jeremy Sugarman and Daniel P. Sulmasy, ibid, p.79 3 Jeremy Sugarman and Daniel P. Sulmasy, ibid, p.6. 4 Jeremy Sugarman and Daniel P. Sulmasy, ibid, p.7. 5 Albert R. Jonsen, The Birth of Bioethics (NY: Oxford University Press, 1998) p.4. 6 Albert R. Jonsen, ibid, p.100 7 Albert R. Jonsen, ibid, p.5. 8 Albert R. Jonsen, ibid, p.6. 9 Albert R. Jonsen, ibid, p.7. 10 Albert R. Jonsen, ibid, p.8. 11 Albert R. Jonsen, ibid, p.9. 12 Jeremy Sugarman and Daniel P. Sulmasy, ibid, p.34. 13 Jeremy Sugarman and Daniel P. Sulmasy, ibid, p.73. 14 Albert R. Jonsen, ibid, p.79. 15 Jeremy Sugarman and Daniel P. Sulmasy, ibid, p.75. 16 Jeremy Sugarman and Daniel P. Sulmasy, ibid, p.41 17 Albert R. Jonsen, ibid, p.73. 18 Jeremy Sugarman and Daniel P. Sulmasy, ibid, p.76. 19 Jeremy Sugarman and Daniel P. Sulmasy, ibid, p.35. 20 Jeremy Sugarman and Daniel P. Sulmasy, ibid, p.36. 21 Jeremy Sugarman and Daniel P. Sulmasy, ibid, p.77. 22 Jeremy Sugarman a nd Daniel P. Sulmasy, ibid, p.13. 23 Jeremy Sugarman and Daniel P. Sulmasy, ibid, p.14. 24 Jeremy Sugarman and Daniel P. Sulmasy, ibid, p.15. 25 Jeremy Sugarman and Daniel P. Sulmasy, ibid, p.18. 26 Jeremy Sugarman and Daniel P. Sulmasy, ibid, p.20. 27 Jeremy Sugarman and Daniel P. Sulmasy, ibid, p.21. 28 Jeremy Sugarman and Daniel P. Sulmasy, ibid, p.22. 29 Jeremy Sugarman and Daniel P. Sulmasy, ibid, p.23. 30 Jeremy Sugarman and Daniel P. Sulmasy , ibid, p.24 Bibliography Jonsen, Albert. R. The Birth of Bioethics. NY: Oxford University Press, 1998. Sugarman Jeremy and Sulmasy, Daniel. Methods in Medical Ethics. WA: Georgetown University Press, 2010. This research paper on Historical Development of Health Care Ethics Methods was written and submitted by user Arielle Harper to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

car in 1950s essays

car in 1950s essays 6a)Factory owners and workers developed co-operative strategies to deal with the unemployment. Thousand of individuals lost their jobs and became unemployed for the several years. The economic sectors hardest hit were the pulp and paper industries, agriculture, and mining. Most of the cars have also affected a big impact on the women, men, and children. Before the cars were invented the women looked after their children, cooked, and looked after the house, and men were the ones who were working on the farms to provide their family to survive. b) The different industries that were stimulated as a result of the increased ownership were the manufacturing, production, and last but not least the mining. c) Having an automobile was really a success during the1950s. With the automobiles, it was easier for the parents to find the jobs with better pays, and shorter hours. Also they would use the car to get themselves to their jobs, and get their children to school. Another thing that was good about the automobile was that they could have gone more out, spend more time with the family and friends, such as go to the cinemas, shopping, and vacations. d) The big conflict about the automobiles, was that the people spend a lot of their money on the gas, fixing the cars, and paying the insurance. It also created the air pollution, and the car accidents. e) People should find the low paying insurance, better cars that spend less gas and other requirements. To prevent the air pollution, they should try to avoid using the car as much as they can. Moreover, they should be more careful while driving the car to avoid car accidents, and any injuries. 7. a) The Oshawa Canada car plant number #1 is North Americas most productive auto plant: workers there produce cars faster than just about anywhere else. Although there is some manufacturing in all large cities, more than three-fourths of Canadian manufacturing employment is locate ...

Advertisment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Advertisment - Essay Example One of its most famous commercial, with a slogan â€Å"Spray more, get more†, which, by the way, has more than 50 million views on Youtube, mat be regarded as the epitome of the utilization of the ‘sex sells’ concept and stereotyping of women. Axe is a brand that produces such hygiene products for men as body spray, body wash, and deodorant. The entire campaign of this brand is comprised of the commercials that have one common theme in all of them. More specifically, in all the commercials of the advertising campaign of the brand, the main character is a man who is chased by a great number of attractive women. The overall idea of the entire campaign is that once a man uses one of the Axe products, he will become desirable for all women he meets. Using such a template for the ads, the advertisers draw a distinctive dividing line between genders and present women as objects in order to target the consumer group. In other words, they tend to create particular stereotypes about genders and use the ‘sex sells’ concept to promote their products. Accordingly to the current studies, the sexual objectification (so-called fetishisation) of female body has become a tendency in modern advertising. Researches show that compared to man, women are portrayed in a sexual manner more often (Brodolini, Giomi, Sansoneti, and Tota 19). The advertisement chosen for the analysis follows the same common scheme of all the ads of the brand. In the very beginning, a young attractive woman feels a particular kind of smell, which is the smell of Axe body spray. She likes it, starts running towards the source of the smell and sees many other girls running through the wild forest in search of the source of the smell. Each of the girls tries to reach the source first. In their pursuit, they overcome a wide range of obstacles: they swim across the sea, climb to the top of the hill and then climb down and finally come to the sea coast. There appears a young man

Economic growth and convergence in poor countries Dissertation

Economic growth and convergence in poor countries - Dissertation Example d stimulation of the sales by means of advertising, personal sales, public relations and various material incentives addressed to consumers, agents and sellers; provision of price conditions, that include planning of the systems and price levels for provided goods, defining technology of price, credit, discount usage; satisfaction of technical and social norms of the region where the products are sold, which means the duty to provide appropriate security of product consumption and environment protection, accordance to moral norms, appropriate level of consumer value of the product; managing economic growth activity as a system, i.e. planning, carrying out and control of economic growth program and individual duties of each participant of production process; evaluation of the risks and profits, efficiency of economic growth decisions. The given paper will provide the analysis of the problems, which developing countries face on the way to economic growth and will prove that in order to stimulate economy, it is necessary to provide innovations in the field of marketing and management. Research analysis and limitations The research process should cover a number of stages. First and foremost, the detailed review of literature is performed, to identify the gaps in research and develop a clearer picture of contemporary management practices in the developing countries. The development of the research question was followed by the analysis of the available literature and potential research objects. Researched countries made the whole research relevant, efficient, and justified. The choice of Ukraine as an example was followed by the development of the research instrument and its analysis. The most important research findings include: The prevailing majority of developing... During the process of market-oriented reformatting a new model of economic development was shaped in many developing countries. It is characterized by high degree of economical openness towards foreign commerce. Many developing countries face the following problems:†¢Ã‚  Limited domestic demand, caused by total pauperization of the population and large-scale humiliation of pre-reforming savings. It leads to narrowness of domestic market, which produces a small volume of solvent demand, regardless of relatively big population. Under such circumstances export becomes a significant factor of economic growth, which is abnormal for economical security of the state, and affects the perspectives of the state influence on the processes of world economy. Market narrowness does not produce appropriate stimulus for investment in the state from domestic and foreign investors.†¢Ã‚  Unfavorable nature of investment climate, caused by incompleteness of the market-addresses institutional r eforms, high level of interference of state institutions and officials into economical activity, high rates of corruption, incompleteness of market infrastructure. It produces the narrowness of domestic market and detracts the capital flows from the country.For example, the crisis of Ukrainian economy was caused by insufficiently considered monetary policy of the government and influence of the structures that are interested in creation of economy of non-payment. Government is planning to remove these structures.

SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) Essay

SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) - Essay Example He battered down government regulations and interference to make banking far more global than before, but he had to face immense criticism for raising voice for laissez-faire Capitalism. Some blamed Walter for bringing excessive loans to third world countries by contraindicating with government regulations for charging interest. According to his biographer Phillip Zweig: â€Å"he was a shy, insecure, and trembling personality† as a rising executive but he revolutionized the old systems in a magnificent way. Huey Peirce Long was the former governor of Louisiana and a Democrat politician, reputed as the champion of common people. He was remnant of Populist ideology and criticized Federal Reserve Bank intensely. He believed that its policies were responsible for Great Depression; so he launched Share Our Wealth Plan but failed to elaborate how he will institute it. He was known for extremist mannerism against his opponents, preoccupation with presidential ambitions and flamboyant lifestyle. Long was successful as Louisiana governor in 1928 elections by winning enough support by his enormous campaigns, criticizing corporate sector and depicting the wealthy as parasites. It is also to be noted that he worked more for his state Louisiana, compared to the nation (Brinkley, 1983). His life has enjoyed fascination in literature, movies, and music Just when he started gaining more fame, he was assassinated and this has left his story, headstrong, charismatic yet unaccomplished. William Allen White (1868- 1944); was an influential American journalist, â€Å"the Emporia Gazette† former editor, a liberal Republican politician and the leader of Progressive movement in Kansas. He emerged as the spokesperson for the Middle America in his time. White gained attention all over the country because of his undaunted editorials in the Emporia Gazette, against the

The Structure And Function Of Antibodies

The Structure And Function Of Antibodies There is a type of white blood cell called plasma cells which are produced in the bone marrow as B cells then mature into plasma cells, these produce antibodies. Antibodies are either attached to cell surface membranes or secreted as soluble glycoproteins. Antibodies are large Y-shaped proteins which the immune system uses to neutralise and lead to the elimination of foreign bodies. Antibodies are glycoproteins, due to carbohydrates binding to amino acid residues on the polypeptides; these are composed of four polypeptide chains, of which, two heavy chains and two light chains to form the complete antibody. There are small regions at the tip of the antibody called the antigen binding sites; this region is hugely diverse due to random genetic mutations leading to amino acid chain variations causing a hyper variable region that allows it to bind to many different antigens. Adaptive immunity is the immune response that involves antibodies. It is undeveloped at birth, and is the response of the lymphocytes to specific antigens. Antibodies are heavy globular plasma proteins that belong to the family of proteins, immunoglobins. They have sugar chains attached to some of their amino acids making them glycoproteins. Each of their heavy chains has two regions; the constant region (carboxyl-terminal end) for biological effector functions and the variable region (amino-terminal end) for antigen recognition. The light and heavy chains forming the antibody have inter and intra chain disulphide bridges which hold the chains together, the quantity of bonds varies between different antibody molecules. They have a hinge region where the arms of the antibody molecule form a Y-shape; it is named the hinge region due to segmental flexibility at this point. Antibodies have a massively variable antigen binding site due to the different heavy and light chain amino acid configurations. After birth the only antibodies present in the body are the ones passed over by passive immunization from the mother. Early active immune system antibodies develop in the first few years of life. The main function of each antibody is to specifically bind to one or few similar antigens (foreign molecules). The structure of antibodies relates to the three main functions; activity, versatility and specificity. Antibodies prevent pathogens from damaging or entering cells by binding to them. Antibodies stimulate macrophages to engage in the removal of pathogens and also stimulate other immune responses. They bind to various cells such as phagocytes, lymphocytes, platelets etc. this binding leads to the activation of these cells to perform immune functions such as antibody production and phagocytosis. Antibodies can also bind together when theyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢re bound to pathogens, linking them together and stopping the pathogens from moving or causing damage. The function of an antibody binding to an antigen is provided by the structure of the variable region which has the antigen-binding site (known as the Fragment antigen-binding fragment made from one constant and one variable region); the variable amino acid configuration allows a diverse possibility of specific antibodies to bind with antigens found on foreign bodies. The Fragment crystallisable region at the base of the antibody triggers the appropriate immune response for the situation, for example clumping together (where the Fab fragment joins with the Fc region of another antibody) or triggering the release of histamine in an allergic reaction. There are five different antibody isotypes in humans; IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IgE. IgG is the main antibody in the blood however it can move throughout the bodyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s tissue. It forms the majority of the active immune antibody response to pathogens. It is also able to cross the placenta during pregnancy, passing on passive immunisation from the mother to the developing foetus. IgA is present in bodily fluids in entrances to the body, such as tears, breast milk, and saliva and also in the respiratory tract, urogenital tract and digestive tract, and its function is to prevent colonisation from pathogens. IgM is either present on B cell surfaces or in a soluble secreted form (in which is the largest antibody due to its pentamer form) in the blood and it is involved in the early immune response and can kill pathogens. IgD is the antigen receptor on B cells not already exposed to antigens. IgE is involved in the allergic response to foreign bodies and releases histamine when bound to allergens. The B cell will produce these various isotypes at different stages of its development. Antibodies are secreted by a type of white blood cell called a plasma cell. Antibodies can occur in two physical forms, a soluble form that is secreted from the cell, and a membrane-bound form that is attached to the surface of a B cell and is referred to as the B cell receptor (BCR). The BCR is only found on the surface of B cells and facilitates the activation of these cells and their subsequent differentiation into either antibody factories called plasma cells, or memory B cells that will survive in the body and remember that same antigen so the B cells can respond faster upon future exposure.[4] In most cases, interaction of the B cell with a T helper cell is necessary to produce full activation of the B cell and, therefore, antibody generation following antigen binding.[5] Soluble antibodies are released into the blood and tissue fluids, as well as many secretions to continue to survey for invading microorganisms.

Essay --

Latin American countries should provide free birth control devices to all its citizens. Giving free birth control devices will cause a cascade effect that will help these countries that are in poverty. Since many of these Latin American countries are in poverty such as Brazil, Colombia and Guatemala it will make these countries have less deaths, crime and drug trafficking. In many of these countries there are huge amounts of drug trafficking and gang violence happening in these same countries that have a huge poverty and high amount of children born. Since many of these children are born with poverty they struggle to eat. Providing birth control devices for the Latin American countries would allow a lesser birth rate in these countries allowing these family to afford a living rather than having to survive whether it be legal or not. Since these countries are not providing birth control devices there is a high birth rate that far exceeds the income that one can provide. However there are many different ways that are birth control such as pills, condoms, etc.; since none of these devi...